By Philemon Mtoi (04 June 2026)
Editorial note
<< This post includes a summary by Tanzanian historian Philemon Mtoi of his recently concluded dissertation at the University of Bonn. His stay in Germany was funded through the research programme “German Colonial Rule“ of Germany’s Foreign Office which is administered by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). >>
PDF file of the summary
Colonial destructive administration
This study examines the history of German colonial destructive administration, focusing on the interface between German health policies and indigenous health systems in Northeastern Tanzania from 1884 to 1914. Specifically, it addresses four main issues: the existence of indigenous health systems during the pre-colonial period; the imposition and implementation of German health policies between 1884 and 1914; the reactions of the people of Northeastern Tanzania to these policies; and the ways the two systems co-existed, conflicted, and interacted with one another.
Indigenous health systems
The study demonstrates that, prior to the imposition of colonialism, the Shambaa and Chagga communities possessed considerable knowledge, skills, and experience related to health, disease, and healing. They developed distinct indigenous health systems aimed at diagnosing, treating, and controlling illnesses. Despite the disruptions introduced by German colonial health interventions, the majority of the Shambaa and Chagga people continued to rely on their traditional medical practices.
Medical pluralism
The Shambaa and Chagga communities openly resisted the introduction and implementation of colonial health policies through various forms and strategies. The study further reveals that, rather than engaging in direct confrontation with the colonial authorities, many indigenous people opted to practice the longstanding tradition of medical pluralism. When ill, they simultaneously sought treatment from the colonial medical services, as well as from Islamic and Christian healing practices. Subsequently, when all these forms of treatment failed, they returned to their indigenous health systems. This approach was adopted for several reasons. Primarily, it allowed individuals to assess the effectiveness of different medical interventions. According to their understanding, a disease could be treated through multiple methods, and the use of diverse healing systems increased the chances of recovery.
Biological & Agricultural Research Centre Lushoto
This institution primarily served the economic interests of the German colonial power by researching, identifying, and classifying plants to make them useful for medicine, agriculture, and industry. Importantly, colonial medical research involved collaboration with the indigenous people of the Usambara Mountains, who helped identify plants suitable for medicinal use. Some of these herbs were later incorporated into Western medicine. This research also facilitated the establishment of quinine plantations in Lushoto. On the one hand, the forestry industry was expanded for commercial purposes, becoming a significant source of income during the colonial period. The research initiatives further stimulated agricultural development in the region through the establishment of fruit plantations. These plantations not only enriched local diets but also served as alternative strategies for the control of communicable and non-communicable diseases.
Hygiene & sanitation
On the other hand, the proclamations regarding hygiene and sanitation provided during the colonial period became the cornerstone for the creation of cleaner towns among the Shambaa and Chagga communities. These behavioural and attitudinal changes toward hygiene and sanitation practices persisted beyond the German colonial era and were adopted throughout the post-colonial period.
Conclusions
This study draws three major conclusions: the destructive nature of German colonial administration, the weaknesses of indigenous health systems, and the strength of German health policies over indigenous health practices. To begin with the first finding, the study demonstrates that German colonial rule was characterised by the use of force and destructive policies, not only during the establishment of colonial administration but also throughout the implementation of various policies in Northeastern Tanzania. Specifically, it reveals that in the process of imposing health policies, the colonial government employed harsh and destructive strategies, including strict regulations aimed at suppressing indigenous health systems. Individuals who were found practising indigenous healing were punished and abused. Furthermore, the study shows that broader colonial policies, such as land alienation and forced labour, contributed significantly to the displacement and weakening of indigenous health systems. As is well known, traditional healers relied heavily on the natural environment and the availability of local populations to provide their services. By disrupting these fundamental determinants through coercion and exploitation, the colonial authorities undermined the effective functioning of indigenous health systems in Northeastern Tanzania. Moreover, despite the efforts made by the German colonial authorities to destroy and eliminate indigenous health systems, these systems prevailed and continued to serve as the most reliable means of controlling and treating diseases in most rural areas of Northeastern Tanzania.